(rev. 01/17/2010)
Notes On Chapter Sixteen
-- Wireless Networking Technologies
- 16.1 Introduction
- There are multiple wireless technologies
- 16.2 A Taxonomy of Wireless Networks
- Local Area Networks (LANs)
- Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
- Wide Area Networks (WANs)
- Personal Area Networks (PANs)
- 16.3 Personal Area Networks
- PAN technology use examples: headset-to-phone, computer-to-keyboard
- Categories:
- Bluetooth
- InfraRed
- ISM wireless (frequencies reserved for Industrial Scientific and
Medical devices)
- 16.4 ISM Wireless Bands Used by LANS and PANS
- 902-928 MHz
- 2.4-2.84 GHz
- 5.725-5.850 GHz
- 16.5 Wireless LAN Technologies and Wi-Fi
- IEEE provides most standards (802.11)
- See figure 16.4 on page 269
- IEEE Standards:
- 802.11
- 802.11a
- 802.11b
- 802.11g
- 16.6 Spread Spectrum Techniques
- Advantages: increased performance and noise immunity
- Spread Spectrum uses multiple frequencies to send data
- Sender spreads data across multiple frequencies and receiver
recombines it.
- DSSS: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum - similar to CDMA
- FHSS: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum - use of a sequence of
frequencies
- OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing - band divided into
many non-interfering carriers.
- 16.7 Other Wireless LAN Standards
- 802.11e: improved quality of service, i.e. low jitter
- 802.11h: like 802.11a with control of spectrum and power
- 802.11i: enhanced security, encryption
- 802.11k: radio resource management
- 802.11n: over 100 Mbps
- 802.11p: Dedicated Short-Range Communication among vehicles on Hwy
- 802.11r: Improved roaming
- 802.11s: For a mesh network
- 16.8 Wireless LAN Architecture
- Characteristics of an Infrastructure Architecture:
- See figure 16.7 on page 272
- wireless hosts: computers that communicate using a
wireless network
- access point: aka base station - typically a
wireless host communicates with an access point and the
access point relays all packets.
- switch or router: an interconnect mechanism used
to connect access points - typically access points and switches
or routers are connected by a twisted-pair Ethernet.
- Basic Service Set (BSS): the set of computers within
range of a given access point.
- It is possible to have an Ad Hoc Wireless Network in which
wireless hosts communicate with each other without relying on an
access point. This architecture is not common.
- 16.9 Overlap, Association, and 802.11 Frame Format
- See figure 16.8 on page 273
- So that there will not be dead zones there must be
overlaps - areas where a wireless host can reach
more than one access point.
- According to 802.11, a wireless host must associate with (send
frames to) only one access point.
- In an infrastructure architecture the 802.11 frame carries the
MAC address of the target access point, and also the MAC address of
the target router connected to the access point.
- 16.10 Coordination Among Access Points
- Some types of access points coordinate to insure smooth handoff as a
wireless computer moves from the region reached by one access point
to another.
- Other types of access points just operate independently and rely on
the ability of wireless hosts to change the the access point to which
they are associated.
- 16.11 Contention and Contention-Free Access
- General Approaches are:
- Point Coordinated Functions (PCF)
- Distributed Coordinated Functions (DCF)
- With PCF the access point controls stations in the BCF to make sure
they do not interfere, for example by assigning a separate frequency
to each station. This method is seldom if ever used.
- With DCF, each station in the BSS runs a random access protocol like
Carrier Sense Multi-Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
- In CSMA/CA, a sender begins with a short RTS message and the access
point responds with a short CTS message, then the sender sends its
data and the access point response with an ACK.
- The 802.11 standard specifies minimum delays between these messages.
- If no ACK arrives the sender employs a backoff strategy.
- Collision detection is not part of the scheme. It is difficult to a
collision from weak signals and interference.
- Conditions vary and some wireless networks must depend heavily on
retransmission - others hardly at all.
- 16.12 Wireless MAN Technology and WiMax
- WiMax is one MAN technology that seems to have a lot of potential
- WiMax = World-wide Interoperability for Microwave Access = 802.16
- Fixed WiMax (802.16-2004, 802.16d) does not provide for handoff
- Mobile WiMax (802.16e-2005, 802.16e) does provide handoff among
access points and can be used with mobile computers, phones and other
mobile devices.
- A WiMax cell has a range of 3-10 Km
- WiMax can provide data rates of 10-70 Mbps
- Applications include:
- Last Mile Internet Access - alternative to DSL or cable modem
- General-purpose interconnection within a city
- Backhaul - e.g. service provider central tower to remote cell
towers (high data-rate LOS frequencies).
- Unified data and telecommunications access
- 16.13 PAN Technologies and Standards
- There are various wireless PAN standards
- Bluetooth: high frequency, short distance, master-slave, 721 Kbps
- Ultra Wideband (UWB): saves power by spreading across many
frequencies, goes through walls, up to 500 Mbps
- Zigbee: for remote control in industry and homes, not for data, three
frequency bands and data rates up to 250 Kbps, low power consumption,
three levels of security being defined.
- 16.14 Other Short-Distance Communication Technologies
- InfraRED is used for remote control and low-speed data transfer - up
to about 16 Mbps
- Small RFID tags used e.g. for inventory control, sensors, and
passports can contain information that a receiver can "pull" -
passive RFID's draw power from reader's signal and active RFID's have
a battery that can last 10 years.
- 16.15 Wireless WAN Technologies
- WAN Technologies:
- Cellular communication systems, or
- Satellite communication systems
- 16.15.1 Cellular Communication Systems
- See figure 16.14 on page 281
- Cellular systems are being used more and more for data and
Internet service, in addition to voice.
- Each cell has a tower and groups of cells are connected to a
Mobile Switching Center that connects in with the
Public-Switched Telephone Network and the Internet too.
- The Centers track users and manage handoff as a user passes from
one cell to another.
- In a handoff from one group to another, two Mobile Switching
Centers are involved.
- Real cell coverage maps do not correspond to perfect honeycomb
patterns.
- Cell sizes differ between rural and metropolitan areas.
- 16.16 Cell Clusters and Frequency Reuse
- There are schemes for assigning frequencies to (e.g. phone) cells so
that no two adjacent cells use the same frequency, This lessens
problems with interference.
- 16.17 Generations of Cellular Technologies
- 1G: 1970's through '80's - analog voice
- 2G: early 1990's to present - digital voice
- 3G: starting in the 2000's - addition of high-speed data services for
web-browsing, photo-sharing, and the like - roaming over N.A. Japan &
Europe
- 4G: starting in 2008 - support for real-time media & multiple
connection technologies, e.g. WiFi and satellite with phone choosing
best service dynamically.
- There is a wide variety of implementation strategies.
- Forms of CDMA seem to be converging toward a global standard.
- 16.18 VSAT Satellite Technology
- Early receivers used large antennae (e.g. 3m+ diameter)
- Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) technology allows diameters more
in the 1m range.
- VSAT is used to link businesses, to download entertainment, and for
Internet access.
- There are three frequency ranges offered with differing footprint,
signal strength and sensitivity to atmospheric effects (e.g. rain).
- 16.19 GPS Satellites
- GPS satellites provide accurate time and location information
- Such information is used increasingly in mobile networking - e.g.
location-based services.
- A receiver can determine its distance to three of the satellites
and from that work out its position on the earth.
- 16.20 Software Radio and the Future of Wireless
- A software radio is a device that uses tunable analog filter chips,
digital signal processor chips, and multiple antenna management to
dynamically control:
- frequencies used for receiving and transmitting
- transmitter power
- channel coding and modulation scheme(s) in use
- multiplexing scheme(s) in use
- direction to which various antennae are tuned
- all aspects of MAC framing and MAC addressing
- The US military uses software radio
- The Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) and GNU Radio are
available for experimentation
- Some details have to be worked out before they appear in commercial
products - e.g. high cost and protection of other devices from
interference that might be caused by software radios.